Angular Photogrammetric Analysis of the Facial Profile of the Adult Bangladeshi Garo

Advances in Anthropology

2013. Vol.3, No.4, 188-192

Published Online November 2013 in SciRes (http://www.scirp.org/journal/aa) http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/aa.2013.34026

Open Access

188

Angular Photogrammetric Analysis of the Facial Profile of the

Adult Bangladeshi Garo

Mussammat Afsana Ferdousi1, Abdullah Al Mamun2, Laila Anjuman Banu3*, Sudip Paul4

1Department of Anatomy, Tairunnessa Memorial Medical College and Hospital, Dhaka, Bangladesh

2Department of Microbiology, North Bengal Medical College, Sirajganj, Bangladesh

3Department of Anatomy, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

4Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Email: *dr.lailabanu@gmail.com

Received May 22nd, 2013; revised June 25th, 2013; accepted July 21st, 2013

tive Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any me-

dium, provided the original work is properly cited.

The analysis of facial soft tissue from the photographic records gives information about the standard nor-

mative values of different facial parameters of a specific population group, helps in the diagnosis of any

abnormalities of face and also helps for the treatment plan of patients undergoing orthodontic treatment or

facial plastic surgery. The aim of the present study was to measure some craniofacial angles of the Bang-

ladeshi Garo males and females on standardized facial profile photographs and compare them with each

other and with norms of different ethnic group proposed by the other investigators. The study was carried

out with a total number of 100 Christian Garo adult male and female subjects. Statistical analysis showed

that the females had significantly higher values than the males in three facial angles (p < 0.05): the na-

sofrontal angle (G-N-Pro, females = 137.97˚ ± 4.80˚; males = 129.57˚ ± 7.96˚), the nasomental angle (N-

Prn-Pg, females = 132.79˚ ± 5.10˚; males = 129.75˚ ± 7.32˚) and the angle of facial convexity (G-Sn-Pg,

females = 169.26˚ ± 4.43˚; males = 158.65˚ ± 12.17˚) but no differences between the nasofacial (G-Pg/

N-Prn) and nasolabial angle (Cm-Sn-Ls). Findings from the present study might help to establish a dis-

tinct facial profile trait for the Garo population.

Keywords: Photogrammetric Analysis; Facial Angle; Garo Population

Introduction

The face is the most attractive and variable part of the human

body. The variability and beautifulness of the face are express-

ed by different sizes and shapes of individual features of diffe-

rent parts of the face and also by different facial angles. As face

is the entity which gives us the perception of individuality of

human being and of gender differences, different craniofacial

parameters help in identifying people having different physical

characteristics, diagnosing people having craniofacial abnorma-

lity related to congenital or genetic cause and differentiating be-

tween males and females. Various methods have been used to

evaluate facial characteristics such as craniofacial anthropome-

try (Kolar & Salter, 1997), photogrammetry (Fernandez-Riveiro

et al., 2003; Kale-Varlik, 2003; Anicy-Milosivecy et al., 2008;

Malkoc et al., 2009; Anibor & Okumagba, 2010; Reddy et al.,

2011; Wamalwa et al., 2011), cephalometric radiography (Mc-

Intyre & Mossey, 2003), stereophotogrammetry (Sforza & Fer-

rario, 2006), computed tomography and laser scanning (AlK-

hatib, 2010).

Anthropometric measurements on photographs are called

photogrammetry. Stoner (1955) and Fernandez-Riveiro et al.

(2003) standardized the photographic technique and record

taking in natural head position (NHP) and gave average values

for White adults, whereas Arnett and Bergman (1993) also took

records in NHP and described the facial profile using the angle

of facial convexity.

Craniofacial photogrammetry is a new field in Bangladesh. It

is simple to be applied and is relatively noninvasive and low

cost method. It avoids inconvenience of the participants and also

saves valuable time. It provides a permanent record for the

actual appearance of the participants. As the outline of the pho-

tographs do not change and the soft tissue becomes income-

pressible on the bone, so the data obtained from the analysis of

angular photogrammetric profile can provide the maxillofacial

and plastic surgeons, orthodontists and other clinicians with a

way of understanding problems associated with various soft tis-

sue segments of the facial region and also can help in setting

aesthetic treatment plans for the patients.

Populations vary genetically and geographically in their cra-

niofacial features. Therefore, a single standard of anthropomet-

ric variables is not appropriate for being applied to diverse ra-

cial and ethnic groups. Though Bangladesh is a relatively small

country, people of different religions and ethnic groups live

here and these different groups have differences in their physi-

cal characteristics. The Garo community is one of the major

tribes in Bangladesh. The people from the Garo tribe have dif-

ferent physical characteristics from those of the Bengali popu-

lation. Broadly speaking, they carry the racial characteristics of

the Mongoloids (Banglapedia, 2011). Study on Angular photo-

grammetric profile analysis of the Garo tribal population is

*Corresponding author.

M. A. FERDOUSI ET AL.

scanty, especially on the measurements like facial profile an-

gles and sexual differences.

Measurement of the different craniofacial variables is being

considered as important for studying human growth because

facial proportions change with age, for studying sexual differ-

ences as sex differences are presented by variations in skeletal

dimensions and muscle development and also for clinical treat-

ments as normative value of craniofacial dimensions help in

determining abnormality and thus treatment planning (Kolar &

Salter, 1997). So, the results of this study were expected to be

useful for the anatomists, physical anthropologists, genetic

counselors, forensic scientists, beauticians as well as plastic and

reconstructive surgeons.

Materials and Methods

Study Participan ts

A total of 100 adult Bangladeshi Christian Garo (50 males

and 50 females) participants aged between 25 and 45 years re-

siding at Dhaka city were enrolled in the study and the analysis

of the data were done in the Department of Anatomy, Banga-

bandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), Dhaka

from July 2010 to June 2011. They were without any history of

acquired or genetic craniofacial anomalies. Participants were

considered to be the “Garo” if there two grandparents were of

Garo origin. Among the Garo, only Christians and adults were

decided to be selected for avoiding possible differences with

age or those arising from habits related to specific religions. The

research proposal was approved by the Ethical Review Com-

mittee (ERC) of BSMMU. Then consent was obtained from

each participant by taking her/his signature on the written con-

sent form.

Photographic Se tu p

All right profile photographs were taken with a Kodak Easy

Share Z 710 digital camera, with 10 X optical zoom and at a 7.1

megapixel resolution. A blue color curtain was used as a back-

ground, and flash mode was also used.

Photograph Taking

To take a good image, the camera was positioned approxi-

mately 1.0 - 1.5 meter distance from the participant and was

raised to the ear level of the participant to provide good quality

of image and to prevent distortion of the face (Ozkul et al.,

2009). All the photographs were taken with the participants

sitting in a relaxed position with their heads held in the natural

head position (Fernandez-Riveiro et al., 2003).

Photograph Analys is

Analysis of the facial photographs was done by a computer

software program named Adobe Photoshop CS 4 Extended (Fi-

gures 1-6). All the measurements were taken twice and recor-

ded in the corresponding data form.

Statistical Analysis

Computer assisted analysis of the right lateral facial photo-

graphs was done by using a computer based software program

Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS-version 17.0).

Figure 1.

Landmarks used in this investigation: G, glabella; N, nasion; Prn, pro-

nasale; Cm, columella; Sn, subnasale; Ls, labial superior; Pg, pogonion.

Figure 2.

Nasofrontal angle (G-N-Prn).

The ranges and mean ± standard deviations (SDs) were calcu-

lated for each angle and unpaired Student’s t-test was calculat-

ed to find out the differences of facial angles between the Garo

males and females. A p value ≤ 0.05 was set as being statisti-

cally significant. Index of sexual dimorphism was also calcu-

lated (Hwang et al., 1995).

Results

Descriptive statistical data including mean, maximum, mini-

mum, and standard deviations for the photogrammetric angular

measurements together with the results of the Student’s t-test

comparing male and female measurements are shown in Table 1.

Statistically significant sex differences were found in three of

the five angles analyzed: all angles that suggested gender diffe-

rences were wider in females: the nasofrontal angle (G-N-

Open Access 189

M. A. FERDOUSI ET AL.

Open Access

190

Table 1.

Data of craniofacial angles for the males and females of Garo population.

Value (degree)

Craniofacial angles (degree) Sex Ranges Mean (±SD)

P value Index of sexual dimorphism#

Female 127.80 - 146.10 137.96 (±4.79)

Nasofrontal angle Male 107.80 - 142.05 129.56 (±7.96)

0.00* −6.48

Female 30.25 - 48.50 38.67 (±4.05)

Nasofacial angle Male 32.90 - 51.10 40.27 (±4.54)

0.07 3.98

Female 117.90 - 145.50 132.79 (±5.10)

Nasomental angle Male 99.50 - 142.50 129.75 (±7.32)

0.02* −2.34

Female 74.50 - 110.50 91.92 (±8.90)

Nasolabial angle Male 66.70 - 114.85 91.28 (±12.98)

0.78 −0.70

Female 164.83 - 172.69 169.26 (±4.43)

Angle of facial convexity

Male 146.48 - 170.82 158.65 (±12.17)

0.00* −6.72

Note: Unpaired Student’s t test was done to test the significance of difference between the males and the females; *Statistically significant; #Index of sexual dimorphism =

[(Male Mean − Female mean)/Male mean] × 100.

Figure 4.

Nasofacial angle (G-Pg/N-Prn).

Figure 3.

Nasomental angle (N-Prn-Pg). Discussion

Pro, females = 137.97˚ ± 4.80˚; males = 129.57˚ ± 7.96˚), the

nasomental angle (N-Prn-Pg, females = 132.79˚ ± 5.10˚; males

= 129.75˚ ± 7.32˚) and the angle of facial convexity (G-Sn-Pg,

females = 169.26˚ ± 4.43˚; males = 158.65˚ ± 12.17˚), whereas

nasofacial angle was wider in males without significant sexual

differences.

Photogrammetric analysis had advantages in facial profile

analysis especially on angular measurements, as they are not af-

fected by photographic enlargement, non-invasive and com-

monly used method to investigate pre- and post-operative chang-

es and provides a permanent record of patients (Sforza & Fer-

rario, 2006). Compared with other methods, photogrammetric

analysis does not require expensive or complex equipment and

offers digital results that are easily evaluated using computer

software. Furthermore, there is no radiation exposure, so it is

ethically more acceptable to develop population norms through

population-based studies.

The relationship between the columella and the upper lip,

analyzed by the nasolabial angle (Cm-Sn-Ls), showed large va-

riability from 36.70 to 114.85 degrees for males and from 74.50

to 110.50 degrees for females. Large variability was also noted

in the angle of facial convexity characterized by high SDs.

According to the index of sexual dimorphism, the highest

level of sexual differences among the angles of the face was

seen in the angle of facial convexity and the nasofrontal angle.

This index was negative (–ve) when the mean value of the fe-

males was more than that of the males.

The higher values (Table 1) for the females in this study

could be explained by the fact that in general the facial contours

of female subjects were softer than those of males, especially in

the area of the nose, lips, and chin (Anicy-Milosivecy et al.,

2008).

M. A. FERDOUSI ET AL.

Figure 5.

Nasolabial angle (Cm-Sn-Ls).

Figure 6.

Angle of the facial convexity (G-Sn-Pg).

The nasofrontal angle (G-N-Prn) showed significant sex dif-

ferences in the adult Garo and the angle was wider in females.

This is in agreement to the findings by Reddy et al. (2011) in

the North Indian population (136.71˚ ± 3.64˚ in males and

144.33˚ ± 1.75˚ in females), Fernandez-Riveiro et al. (2003) for

Spanish (138.57˚ ± 6.81˚ in males and 141.98˚ ± 6.06˚ in fe-

males), Anic-Milosevic et al. (2008) for Croatian (136.38˚ ±

6.71˚ in males and 139.11˚ ± 6.35˚ in females) and Wamalwa et

al. (2011) for Kenyans (132.44˚ ± 6.91˚ in males and 137.97˚ ±

5.21˚ in females). However, Malkoc et al. (2009) found no sex

differences in this angle (146.03˚ ± 8.19˚ in males and 148.61˚

± 6.66˚ in females). Anibor and Okumagba (2010) found higher

mean male value than the female in Negroid population (132.0˚

± 7.50˚ in males and 137.70˚ ± 7.6˚ in females). The lower

mean value of nasofrontal angle may be attributed to prominent

glabella in the male (Mowlavi et al., 2004).

The mean value of nasofacial angle (G-Pg/N-Prn) found in

the adult Garo population (40.27˚ ± 4.54˚ in males and 38.67˚ ±

4.05˚ in females) is more in comparison to the values given by

Reddy et al. (2011) (34.38˚ ± 1.77˚ in males and 33.69˚ ± 1.37˚

in females) but larger than Anicy-Milosivecy et al. (2008)

(29.53˚ ± 2.51˚ in males and 30.36˚ ± 2.38˚ in females). No sig-

nificant sexual dimorphism was observed. Higher nasofacial

angle suggests that the projection of the nose is more (Wamal-

wa et al., 2011).

The average value of nasomental angle (N-Prn-Pg) found in

the Garo (129.75˚ ± 7.32˚ in males and 132.79˚ ± 5.10˚ in fe-

males) is similar to the North Indian population (127.71˚ ±

1.97˚ in males and 127.11˚ ± 1.81˚ in females) and Caucasian

population (130.47˚ ± 3.73˚ in males and 130.19˚ ± 3.47˚ in

females) (Reddy et al., 2011; Anicy-Milosivecy et al., 2008).

Significant sexual dimorphism was also observed.

The nasolabial angle (Cm-Sn-Ls), evaluating the relationship

of the nasal base and upper lip, is one of the measurements with

greater clinical relevance during orthodontic diagnosis and

treatment planning because its magnitude depends on the ante-

roposterior position and inclination of the upper anterior teeth,

and it can be altered by orthodontics or orthognathic surgery

(Wamalwa et al., 2011). The mean value of nasolabial angle

(Cm-Sn-Ls) found in the Garo (91.28˚ ± 12.98˚ in males and

91.92˚ ± 8.90˚ in females) is less than that in North Indian po-

pulation (102.32˚ ± 4.69˚ in males and 101.50˚ ± 4.39˚ in fe-

males), Turkish population (101.09˚ ± 10.19˚ in males and

102.94˚ ± 10.43˚ in females), White European population

(105.2˚ ± 13.28˚ in males and 107.57˚ ± 8.5˚ in females) and

Caucasian population (105.42˚ ± 9.52˚ in males and 109.39˚ ±

7.84˚ in females) (Reddy et al., 2011; Malkoc et al., 2009; Fer-

nández-Riveiro et al., 2003; Anicy-Milosivecy et al., 2008). Sig-

nificant sexual dimorphism was not observed between the males

and females.

The average value of facial convexity angle (G-Sn-Pg) found

in the Garo (158.65˚ ± 12.17˚ in the males and 169.26˚ ± 4.43˚

in the females) is similar to that in the North Indian population

(168.54˚ ± 3.23˚ in males and 166.64˚ ± 4.09˚ in females) and

White European population (168.2˚ ± 4.96˚ in males and 167.0˚

± 5.36˚ in females) while slightly less than the values in Turk-

ish population (170.60˚ ± 6.15˚ in males and 168.78˚ ± 5.44˚ in

females) and Caucasian population (168.78˚ ± 4.97˚ in males

and 169.05˚ ± 4.69˚ in females) (Reddy et al., 2011; Malkoc et

al., 2009; Fernández-Riveiro et al., 2003; Anicy-Milosivecy et

al., 2008). Significant sexual dimorphism was observed between

the males and females.

Conclusion

It was assumed that a study on the facial angle measurements

on the Garo population of Bangladesh would contribute to the

establishment of standardized normal values for the population.

It would also help in understanding how this population stands

anthropometrically among the various populations of the world

indicating the variations it shows from different other popula-

tions. So, more research is needed for testing the accuracy of

photogrammetric method in Bangladesh.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Dr. Khondker Manzare Sha-

mim, Professor and Chairman, Department of Anatomy, Banga-

bandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University for his constant gui-

Open Access 191

M. A. FERDOUSI ET AL.

Open Access

192

dance and advice that make this work possible.

REFERENCES

Al-Khatib, A. R. (2010). Facial three dimensional surface imaging: An

overview. Archives of Orofacial Sciences, 1, 1-8.

Anibor, E., & Okumagba, M. T. (2010). Photometric facial analysis of

the Urhobo ethnic group in Nigeria. Archives of Applied Science Re-

search, 3, 28-32.

Anicy-Milosivecy, S., Lapter-Varga, M., & Slaj, M. (2008). Analysis of

the soft tissue facial profile by means of angular measurements. Eu-

ropean Journal of Orthod on t ic s, 2, 135-140.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ejo/cjm116

Arnett, G. W., & Bergman, R. T. (1993). Facial keys to orthodontic

diagnosis and treatment planning-Part I. American Journal of Ortho-

dontics and Dentofacial Or t h opedics, 103, 299-312.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0889-5406(93)70010-L

Banglapedia (2011). Garo people.

http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/G_0043.HTM

Fernandez-Riveiro, P., Smyth-Chamosa, E., Suarez-Quintanilla, D., &

Suarez-Cunqueiro, M. (2003). Angular photogrammetric analysis of

the soft tissue facial profile. European Journal of Orthodontics, 25,

393-399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ejo/25.4.393

Hwang, Y., Lee, K. H., Choi, B. Y., Lee, K. S., Lee H. Y., Sir, W. S. et

al. (1995). Study on the Korean adult cranial capacity. Journal of

Korean Medical Science, 4, 239-242.

Kale-Varlik, S. (2003). Angular photogrammetric analysis of the soft

tissue facial profile of Anatolian Turkish adults. The Journal of Cra-

niofacial Surgery, 6, 1481-1486.

Kolar, J. C., & Salter, E. M. (1997). Craniofacial anthropometry: Prac-

tical measurement of the head and face for clinical, surgical and re-

search use. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas, Publisher Ltd.

Malkoc, S., Demir, A., & Uysal, T. (2009). Angular photogrammetric

analysis of the soft tissue facial profile of Turkish adults. European

Journal of Orthodontic s , 31, 174-179.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ejo/cjn082

McIntyre, G. T., & Mossey, P. A. (2003). Size and shape measurement

in contemporary cephalometrics. European Journal of Orthodontics,

25, 231-242. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ejo/25.3.231

Mowlavi, A., Meldrum, D. G., & Wilhelmi, B. J. (2004). Implications

for nasal recontouring: Nasion position preferences as determined by

a survey of White North Americans. Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 27,

438-445.

Ozkul, T., Ozkul, M. H., Akhtar, R., Al-Kaabi, F., & Jumaia, T. (2009).

A software tool for measurement of facial parameters. The Open

Chemical and Biomedical Methods Journal, 2, 69-74.

http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1875038900902010069

Reddy, M., Ahuja, N. K., Raghav, P., Kundu, V., & Mishra V. A. (2011).

Computer-assisted angular photogrammetric analysis of the soft tis-

sue facial profile of North Indian adults. The Journal of Indian Or-

thodontic Society, 3, 119-123.

http://dx.doi.org/10.5005/jp-journals-10021-1021

Sforza, C., & Ferrario, V. F. (2006). Soft-tissue facial anthropometry in

three dimensions: From anatomical landmarks to digital morphology

in research, clinics and forensic anthropology. Journal of Anthropo-

logical Sciences, 84, 97-124.

Stoner, M. M. (1955). A photometric analysis of the facial profile.

American Journal of Ortho d o ntics, 41, 453-469.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9416(55)90156-1

Wamalwa, P., Amisi, S. K., & Chen, S. (2011). Angular photogramme-

tric comparison of the soft-tissue facial profile of Kenyans and Chi-

nese. The Journal of Craniofacial Surgery, 3, 1064-1072.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/SCS.0b013e31821075d8

上一篇:Mapping Three-Dimensional Dens 下一篇:Bullying and Aggressive Behavi

我要分享到：

职称论文发表交流平台！

Angular Photogrammetric Analysis of the Facial Profile of the Adult Bangladeshi Garo

最新文章NEWS

推荐期刊Tui Jian

热点文章HOT